India’s nuclear program began with civilian intentions but evolved into a strategic deterrent driven by regional threats. The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, founded in 1944 by Homi Jehangir Bhabha, laid the groundwork for nuclear research. By 1956, India built its first research reactor, followed by a plutonium reprocessing plant in 1964, enabling the production of weapons-grade material. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru initially pursued a non-weaponized nuclear policy, leveraging India’s conventional military superiority over Pakistan and China. However, the 1962 Sino-Indian border war, where India faced defeat, shifted New Delhi’s perspective, prompting the development of nuclear weapons as a deterrent against China.
India conducted its first nuclear test, codenamed Smiling Buddha, in 1974, becoming a nuclear power. Described as a “peaceful nuclear explosion,” it demonstrated India’s capability without overtly declaring weaponization.
The 1987 Brasstacks crisis with Pakistan and the emergence of Pakistan’s nuclear program further accelerated India’s efforts. By 1989, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi authorized weaponization, and India likely completed nuclear warheads by 1994. In 1998, under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, India conducted the Operation Shakti tests, including a claimed thermonuclear device, solidifying its status as a nuclear-weapon state. India declared a no-first-use (NFU) policy and a doctrine of “credible minimum deterrence,” though it signaled in 2019 that the NFU policy might be reconsidered.
As of January 2024, India possesses approximately 172 nuclear warheads, with delivery systems including the Agni-series ballistic missiles (up to 5,000 km range), nuclear-capable aircraft (Mirage 2000H, Jaguar IS), and submarine-launched ballistic missiles via the INS Arihant, completing its nuclear triad.
India’s arsenal is expanding, with a focus on longer-range weapons to counter China, alongside multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV) technology, tested successfully with the Agni-5 missile in 2024.
Pakistan’s Nuclear Path
Pakistan’s nuclear program was a direct response to its strategic vulnerabilities, particularly after its defeat in the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War, which led to Bangladesh’s independence, and India’s 1974 nuclear test. In 1972, Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto convened scientists, vowing to develop nuclear weapons “even if we have to eat grass”.
The program, relied on uranium enrichment through centrifuges, with significant clandestine support from international networks, including technology from China and Western suppliers.
Pakistan began its nuclear weapons development in the mid-1970s, producing enriched uranium by 1978 and weapon-grade uranium by 1982. By the mid-1980s, Pakistan could assemble a nuclear device. In response to India’s 1998 tests, Pakistan conducted six nuclear tests in May 1998 at Ras Koh Hills, officially becoming a nuclear power. Unlike India, Pakistan has not adopted an NFU policy, emphasizing “full spectrum deterrence” to counter India’s conventional military superiority, including tactical nuclear weapons for battlefield use.
As of 2023, Pakistan’s arsenal comprises approximately 170 warheads, with delivery systems including short- and medium-range ballistic missiles (e.g., Shaheen III, 2,750 km), cruise missiles (Babur, Ra’ad), and nuclear-capable aircraft (Mirage III/V, F-16A/B).
Pakistan is developing sea-based capabilities, such as the Babur-3 cruise missile, tested in 2017 and 2018, to establish a second-strike capability. Its arsenal is projected to grow to 200–250 warheads by 2025, supported by four plutonium production reactors and expanded uranium enrichment facilities.
Comparative Dynamics
Both nations developed nuclear capabilities outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), facing international sanctions that were later lifted for India due to strategic partnerships with the U.S. and others.
India’s program was initially driven by China’s threat, with Pakistan as a secondary focus, while Pakistan’s efforts were singularly aimed at countering India. India’s larger conventional forces and NFU policy contrast with Pakistan’s reliance on tactical nuclear weapons and first-use posture, creating an asymmetric deterrence dynamic.
List of Nuclear-Capable Countries
As of May 2025, nine sovereign states are generally understood to possess nuclear weapons, based on research from SIPRI, the Arms Control Association, and Wikipedia:
United States: ~5,044 warheads (3,708 military stockpile, ~1,336 deployed).
Russia: 5,580 warheads (4,380 military stockpile, ~1,710 deployed).
United Kingdom: 225 warheads (120 operationally available).
France: 290 warheads (290 operational).
China: 500 warheads (410 operational, some on high alert).
India: ~172 warheads (stored, not deployed).
Pakistan: ~170 warheads (stored, not deployed).
North Korea: ~50–90 warheads (estimated, not deployed).
Israel: ~90–300 warheads (estimated, undeclared, stored).
South Africa previously possessed nuclear weapons but dismantled its arsenal before joining the NPT. Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine transferred Soviet-era weapons to Russia post-1991. NATO’s nuclear-sharing arrangements allow Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Turkey to deploy U.S. nuclear bombs, though these remain under U.S. control.
History of Nuclear Bombs
The development of nuclear weapons is a story of scientific breakthroughs, geopolitical rivalries, and global efforts to limit proliferation, as detailed by research organizations:
1940s: Inception:
The U.S. launched the Manhattan Project in 1942, culminating in the first nuclear test (Trinity) in July 1945 and the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 (yields: ~15–20 kt).
The Soviet Union began its program in 1943, testing its first bomb in 1949.
1950s–1960s: Proliferation:
The UK tested its first nuclear weapon in 1952, France in 1960, and China in 1964, with China achieving a hydrogen bomb in 1967.
The 1968 NPT aimed to limit nuclear weapon states to these five, requiring non-nuclear states to forgo weapons development.
1970s–1980s: South Asia Emerges:
India’s 1974 test marked the first non-NPT state to demonstrate nuclear capability, followed by Pakistan’s covert program in the 1970s.
Israel, though undeclared, is believed to have developed nuclear weapons by the late 1960s, with estimates of 100–200 warheads by the 1980s.
1990s–2000s: Further Tests and Withdrawals:
India and Pakistan conducted overt tests in 1998, formalizing their nuclear status.
North Korea, after withdrawing from the NPT in 2003, tested its first nuclear device in 2006.
The CTBT, opened in 1996, remains unratified by key states, including India, Pakistan, and North Korea.
2010s–Present: Modernization:
All nine nuclear states are modernizing arsenals, with India, Pakistan, and North Korea developing MIRV capabilities and China expanding its stockpile.
As of January 2024, the global inventory is ~12,121 warheads, with ~3,904 deployed and ~2,100 on high alert, mostly by the U.S. and Russia.
Discussion about this post